The
term hell has been a hot topic for many over the centuries. That this concept
has been challenged by many generations of the church is nothing new. There
have been many who have been dissatisfied both with the way the church has
utilized the term and the fear and condemnation that comes with it. As we will
see both in the Hebrew and in the Greek, there is an ambiguity that has been
lost or neglected, possibly because it is unsettling to know so little about a
topic, or in some cases a doctrine, that has been given far too much attention.
As much as possible, I will attempt to maintain an unbiased posture until we
have covered the terms and need to present conclusions.
We begin our study of hell in the Hebrew as it is laid out
by Van Gemeren in his New International
Dictionary of Old Testament Theology & Exegesis.[1]
Van Gemeren gives a list of four words that are paradigmatically related to
each other but could be semantically related to each other: qbr, dama, bor, and gadis. There are
another two that are significantly related to each other which also, when used
in combination with some of the latter four make those four refer to the same
thing: seol, and sahat. However, as we will see, the relationship between the four
as being contiguous with the two are dependant upon certain circumstances.
The word qbr will
be our first example. Qbr Is a root
word that will always refer to the burying of people, never animals. Up to the
monarchic period, it was important for people to be buried with their fathers.
Hence, we read in Chronicles, then he
rested with his fathers and was buried in the city of David his father(2
Chronicles 9:31). Sometimes qbr is
used in such a way to mean that the person is gathered to one's people. Nowhere
in the OT is being buried in the same tomb as one’s ancestors a prerequisite
for resting with fathers. An unburied corpse was a sign of shame and the burial
of the dead was important because the exposure of human corpses desecrated the
land. As a side note, it is extremely unlikely that cremation was ever a part
of Israelite practice. More than likely the term grave as we have it in the
root qbr means cave or tomb or pit.
Hence for us its association with seol as
being used in parallel fashion could mean the pit of seol but might also refer to the simple term grave, the physical
resting place of a person.
Next, we have the term dama.
The term can refer to a number of things, it can mean ground, or a piece of
land, or soil, or earth. It is usually used in the sense of death. For
instance, when a person goes to dama,
he goes to the literal physical reference of the ground meaning he returns to
the dust. However, there is also a possible exception to this word dama. For instance, in Daniel 12:2 we
read, Many of those who sleep in the dust
of the ground will awake. The author makes a reference here to the dust of dama. In this instance it is possible
that the term could refer to something like seol,
but it is more likely referring to the substance in which the dead are buried.
Third, we have the word bor.
This word means cistern or well. That is of course, unless it is being used in
juxtaposition or parallelism with the words seol
or sahat. Only when the word is
used with the word seol does bor refer to the grave. Given our
understanding of qbr to mean pit or
tomb, we can understand how if used in the same way with seol, bor could also simply be referring to a grave or tomb where
people are laid to rest. Likewise, the term gadis
refers to the dirt or mound that is placed upon a grave. Again, we can see the
relationship with this word gadis and
the previous three.
Finally, we have the two words we are most concerned with, seol and sahat. The term seol or
sheol as it appears in the english explicitly refers to the netherworld. It
occurs sixty-five times in the Masoretic Hebrew, sixty-one times rendered hades
in LXX, and sixty-one times inferred in the vulgate. All attempts to recover
its etymology have failed. It is clear that through its uses in Proverbs 27:20,
Isaiah 14:15, and Psalms 89:48 seol designates both grave and netherworld
particularly the latter. The term is mostly used in wisdom literature and
poetry. It is a place that people are brought against their will as we see in
Gen 37:35. It is Yahweh who leads them down, but Yahweh also has the ability to
bring them up as we see in 1 Sam 2:6 and Isa 26:19. It is used as the
antithesis of the high heavens or places. As personified, seol is depicted as a great enemy. with ropes it draws victims
down, Job 24:19. God’s plans are not frustrated by seol but He can guide the wise away from it as we see in Ppov
15:24. However, even those who find their way to seol can be lead out again by Yahweh Psalm 49:15. The most
elaborate descriptions appear in Isaiah and Ezekiel. For instance, Isaiah
prophesies the fall of the Babylonian king from the heights to the depths (
Isaiah 14:15-18). Ezekiel 31:16-18 also proclaims pharaoh to be cast to the
deepest parts of the earth or to the pit. It is the realm of the uncircumcised,
especially gentile sinners Ezekiel 32:21. There is no hope of escape or
deliverance from seol unless God
determines through gracious intervention to bring the individual out. The term sahat, which means pit or grave occurs
twenty-one times in the OT. It is virtually interchangeable with seol. Five of the twenty-one times is
referred to in Job 33. sahat bears
both ideas of grave and netherworld. The two words frequently overlap and are
not clearly distinguished in most OT contexts. When the terms qbr, dama, bor, or gadis, are used alongside with seol
and sahat, the latter terms come to
refer to the grave or netherworld, but only when used in combination with seol and sahat. This is called a semantic relation.
In the Greek NT, Eugene Nida has grouped together in his
classic tome, Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament based on Semantic
Domains, nine different words that are semantically related to one another.[2]
Many of the terms could be referring to what we have come to understand as
hell, but not necessarily. For example, the terms καταχθονιων, and βαθος both
refer to a place of lowness or a place below the surface of the earth, or below
the high places. In Romans 8:39 we read, Neither the world above nor the world
below(βαθος). In this instance, βαθος may be understood as those who inhabit
the place below. However, the term also referenced in Ephesians 4:9 refers to
the lower parts of the earth and may refer to the world below. However, this
might be low in the sense of the areas being low compared to heaven, therefore
being translated as earth.
Then, there are those terms which refer to a place of
darkness, that is the dwelling place of the devil, or evil spirits, or bad
angels. The term αβυσσος, as well as the the phrases τω σοχτος to ζωτερον and ο
ζοφος τοθ σκοτοθς all in some sense refer to a location of the dead where the
devil is kept, the place of abode for the antichrist, or a place of abandon
such as of the angels in Revelations 9:11. Possibly referred to as the deepest
hole in the earth or the bottomless pit. These terms carry a connotation of
darkness rather than fiery lake, a place that is removed. Although, there is an
ambiguity regarding what this place is removed from, it most likely is removed
from where there is light.
The final group of words are closer to what we are concerned
with. The words αδης, γεεννα, ταρταροω, and the phrase λιμνα του πυρος all
refer to a type of place that is in some way what many understand hell to be
like, or at least what they think they understand. The word αδης is a place of
dwelling for the dead, both righteous and unrighteous alike. It is the
equivalent to Sheol or Hades. We see in Luke 16:23 for instance, in the story
of the rich man and Lazarus, we read something like In Hades he lifted up his eyes. There is amongst this reference
with a number of important supplementary words a theme of suffering, but it is
important to understand that these are only supplementary and are not
constitutive as a whole. The only instance in the NT where ταρταροω is to be
found is in 2 Peter 2:4. This is ultimately a derivative of ταρταρος, which
literally means a place of torture or torment. However, the root is not found
in the NT. The derivative means to cast into or to cause to remain in a place
of torment. In many cases it is confusing to add still another term for a
designation of hell by transliterating the Greek and so most translators have
preferred to render the word as cast into hell. This is ultimately the same
word as used for γεεννα it could be considered as the equivalent of seol and sahas only in the Greek. All this being said, as it is used in 2
Peter 2:4, Peter understands this to be a place for angels who sin.
Lastly, we have the two primary terms designated for hell in
the NT, γεεννα and the phrase λιμνα του πυρος.
γεεννα is a place of punishment for the
dead. The Greek γεεννα is ultimately derived from a Hebrew phrase referring to
the 'Valley of Hinnom,' a valley that runs along the south side of Jerusalem
that has been turned into a garbage heap where the trash from the city was
being burned continuously. According to Jewish folklore, the armageddon was to
take place in this valley, and hence the figurative extension of meaning from
valley of Hinnom to Hell. Most references to γεεννα refer to the punishing of
the dead possibly for their sins. Of all twelve references in the NT, seven of
those references can be found in Matthew, three are found in Mark, one is in
Luke, and the last is in James(Matt 5:22, 29, 30, 10:28, 18:9, 23:15, 23:33,
Mark 9:43, 9:45, 9:47, Luke 12:5, James 3:6).
. Finally, we have the phrase that most people have come to
associate with hell, λιμνα του πυρος, literally translated lake of fire. Occurring six times in the NT, all of these
occurrences are found in Revelations, some references have slightly different
forms, and only three times with the additional image of a place of eternal
punishment or destruction. In a number of different languages it is impossible
to translate the phrase literally, since water and fire seem to be so
contradictory that a lake of fire is not even conceivable. It may be possible
in some cases to speak of a place that looks like a lake that is on fire. In
places with volcanic activity however, this concept is not difficult to
believe. If the apocalyptist does use this term when thinking of γεεννα, which
is entirely plausible considering that γεεννα was a place that was continuously
on fire, we could imagine a giant fire whereas the heat rises from the flames
which causes the air to shift and change resembling a type of fiery lake.
Revelation 21:8 is in fact the only place in the NT where it explicitly states,
that a group of people who are identified by their dispositions of cowardice,
unbelief, the abominable, the murderous, the immoral persons, sorcerers,
idolaters, and liars will be cast into the lake of fire. Even so, there is
drastic ambiguity regarding whether or not this is a place of torment or a
place where the fire consumes.
Based on these finding, there are a number of conclusions we
can come to. First, as we have it in Scripture, hell is an extremely ambiguous
subject. The various forms in which we are presented with the concept vary in
each circumstance without much continuity from Old Testament to New Testament.
We therefore must either present all of these instances as representing the
same reference but in different, as many have done with associating all
references to a type of underworld with a lake of fire, or we hold each phrase
separately and admit that we simply do not have enough to go on to have any
type of certainty when it comes to hell. The simple fact that the most
predominant uses of the terms seol,
sahat, γεεννα, and λιμνα του πυρος come from wisdom literature, poetry, or
apocalyptic literature tells us that perhaps the writers who utilize these
phrases are presenting us with metaphors, rather than epistemological
statements. Even when Jesus refers to hell in the Gospels, the only people who
we are explicitly told will go to hell are the pharisees and hypocrites. Thus,
my conclusion is this, hell is a place I do not want to go, and I believe in
the power and ability of Yahweh through His grace and mercy to rescue me from
it. To God in heaven praise be!
[1] Willem VanGeremen ed., New International Dictionary of Old
Testament Theology & Exegesis, vol. 5 (Grand Rapids, Zondervan Pub.
House, 1996), 135.
[2] Johannes P. Louwand
Eugene A. Nida, Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament based on Semantic
Domains. 2nd ed. 2 vols.(New York: United Bible Societies, 1989), 32.
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